Cheating in a Bottom Line Economy

SUMMARY & CRITIQUE OF: â€Å"Cheating in a Bottom Line Economy† (by David Callahan) In â€Å"Cheating in a Bottom Line Economy,† author David Callahan explains the fundamental reasons for the decay of simple business ethics in today’s economy in order to meet bottom line standards. Callahan draws conclusions from everyday businesses such as auto mechanic services, law offices, and even professional medical firms to prove that people will almost always choose financial stability over integrity. The economic life in America has transformed itself into a vast land of professionals focused on achieving â€Å"lean and mean† businesses in efforts to achieve the â€Å"American Dream,† but in essence lose sense of their morals. What happens when an employee is living a standard life with a job just barely getting them by? Executives at corporate headquarters decide to send down a new set of marching orders that drill employees with twice as much work for a sharply decreased base pay. Those marching orders have coined the term bottom line standards. American businesses have become highly competitive today in a market that is constantly changing to keep up with a new generation of ideas. These fluctuations in the economy have caused businesses to take different methods of actions to be competitive in the market. In the 1970’s Sears reigned as one of America’s well known retailers and shaped popular culture. As the market of demand became more competitive, Sears’ earnings began falling off the market. In order to get on the stock market, Sears had to cut 48,000 jobs and institutionalized a new compensation system (Callahan 31). As Sears set their new bottom-line standards to increase efficiency, it caused uproar from the employees. The demands of the company ultimately undermined the integrity of their workers. The pressure to make unpleasant ethical choices at work had employees â€Å"torn between moral integrity, losing [their] job, and trying to figure out how to work all this out† (Callahan 31). Employees of companies with bottom line standards were faced with a new decision at margin which made doing the right thing harder: suffer a pay cut and risk losing their job or cheat the customer. Not to our surprise, the employee would almost always choose their economic stability over their integrity. It is still not easy to say that the employee’s conscious didn’t warn them of the risks, the first time. It begins with just a simple upgrade tune up and then trickles to $1,000 in new auto parts. If we look back at the Sear’s auto mechanic example, a mechanic could easily convince the customer that their car needed a whole new system because of the customer’s lack of knowledge of the subject. The customer automatically assumes there is a guaranteed trust commitment to their service, but in turn gets fooled. The evidence unearthed by investigators found nearly identical reports of cheating at one Sears auto repair shop after another. The art of deception played a key role in fooling customers. The â€Å"ordinary people† at the New York City law firms were bound by an oath to abide a rigorous code of ethics (Callahan 33). Though these lawyers dealt with legal affairs of America’s largest companies, they were faced with not meeting year end billing requirements. In the most desperate cases of being downsized, lawyers turned to padding their hours by simply making up the numbers. They rounded up their hours and added in miscellaneous hours which was described as the â€Å"new math† (Callahan 39). â€Å"Let me tell you how you will start acting unethically†¦One day, not too long after you start practicing law, you will sit down at the end of a long, tiring day, and you just won’t have much to show for your efforts in terms of billable hours†¦so what you’ll do is pad your time sheet just a bit†¦However you will promise yourself that you will repay the client at the first opportunity by doing thirty minutes for the client for ‘free. In this way, you will be ‘borrowin,’ not stealing,† (Schlitz qtd. in Callahan 39). Commitments to meeting bottom line standards and greed have become directions of undermining integrity of even the most trusted profession: medical doctors. Medical professionals begin engaging in multilevel marketing companies such as the Wellness International Network (WIN), which dictate distributors to sell their company’s product at any extent. By earning money off of new distributors, this multilevel marketing became a pyramid scheme for destruction. Report peg the sale of health supplements by doctors at nearly $200 million in 2001, a tenfold increase from 1997. An estimated 20,000 doctors are now selling supplements from their offices, more than double the number of five years ago† (Callahan 49). These sorts of insider trading within their offices go against the American Medical Association guidelines that â€Å"doctors must ensure that the claims supporting any products they sell to patients are ‘scientifically valid and backed up by peer reviewed literature and other unbiased scientific sources’† (Callahan 49). They clearly prohibit the exchange of medical equipment, but the profit is too grand for the doctors to pass up. Those in the medical profession argue that they resort to such options to pay for their debt payments and management. Comments such as â€Å"I was used to following doctors advice†¦Doctors have the training, so you’ve got to respect their expertise† (Cumminskey qtd. in Callahan 48) prove that doctors hold a high level of respect for their profession, but it diminishes as scandals of deception are released to the public. In Steven Messner’s and Richard Rosenfeld’s article A Society Organized for Crime, they explain that people’s behavior towards meeting bottom line standards is to fulfill the American Dream. They state that the American Dream is an ideology that â€Å"people are socialized to accept the desirability of pursing the goal of material success, and they are encouraged to believe that the changes of the Dream are sufficiently high to justify a continued commitment to this cultural goal† (Messner 6). Generally, success in today’s society is defined by monetary and material gains. Therefore people are willing to go at any measure to achieve that success. Both articles explain how crime and delinquency arise from economic disputes that are settled with unethical behavior. The issue at hand is the fact that these issues cannot be solved in conventional ways, but only by working around the system to deceive their customers. Callahan’s article reinforces these popular notions that crime is not always intentional, but a means of getting through small obstacles in life in an unethical matter. These illegal activities begin as small meaningless preconceived activities and then sprout to everyday routines that are accepted within their business community. Callahan also makes us reconsider the power of higher authority figures that knowingly condone and usually promote this unethical behavior. This takes us back to the old saying, would you jump off a cliff if everyone did? The answer is yes. In all three of the cases, personal issues about cheating were put aside because â€Å"everyone was doing it. † I found these readings really interesting and relevant to the topic of crime and delinquency. Callahan does an excellent job of explaining the effects of bottom lines standards on people and the economy. I completely agree with his perspective that choosing economical stability over integrity will get a person closer to the American Dream then losing their job. It poses a moral issue, but in this century you can’t live on just integrity. The sad truth is people gain integrity from their monetary and material wealth. I believe Callahan could really expand on this topic by looking further into the psychological standpoint of meeting bottom line standards in order to get a better understanding of what goes through a person’s mind when deciding to go against their morals. KEY POINTS, ISSUES, AND QUESTIONS:Doing the right thing gets harder as the pressure between financial stability and integrity is put on the line.The game of hustling becomes everyday knowledge that moral ethics are completely put aside.  The American Dream causes people to act irrationally, but if you really think about it their unethical act stimulate the economy.Question: What are the implications of Callahan’s work for discovering cheating in a bottom line economy? Question: What are the psychological aspects of going against morals to deceive people ?

The Yellow Wolf: The Strong and Wise Cheyenne Indian

The Indian Frontier of the American West tells a story of the different Indian tribes and whites from 1846 to 1890. This period of time is very famous in American history. It produced some of the most widely heard of names in the battles between Indians and whites. These names include Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce tribe, Sitting Bull of the Oglala Sioux, Cochise, Geronimo, and Mangas Coloradas, and John Ross of the Cherokee Nation. These names are still very respected among historians and are seen throughout history books used in schools across the nation. These names were involved in many battles with whites in the middle of the nineteenth century. In this book, Robert Utley describes how many different Indian cultures survived between 1846 and 1890. Utley also spent some time in discussing how Americans felt about Indians. This book also talked about how the American government was run, and how they dealt with the different Indian cultures. This book had a couple of interesting stories in it also. The dozens of cultures depicted in this book really made it somewhat interesting to read. One story that I truly liked in the book was that of Yellow Wolf. Yellow Wolf was an extremely strong and wise Cheyenne Indian. He was a man that was known for his leadership in battles with the Utes, Pawnees, Kiowas, and Comanches. Yellow Wolf also played an important role in helping William Bent, also known as â€Å"Little White Man†, as to where to set up his trading post along the river. After Bent had set up his fort, Yellow Wolf traveled there in the summer. He watched as tens of thousands of white men move in and through the Indian country. This made him worry about the future of his people, something no other Cheyenne leader would even consider for years. In discussing his fears with an army officer he talks of how his people and the buffalo are disappearing. He also says that his people will become extinct unless they change and adopt the habits of white people. Yellow Wolf lived for eighteen years amongst the white man. In his final year of his life, Yellow Wolf watched his worst fears come true. Through all of this, he continued to believe that the only hope his people had was if they learned from the white man. On November 29, 1864, a white man from General Stephen Watts Kearney†s army gunned down Yellow Wolf. He was 85 years old. Another part of the book that I truly enjoyed reading was the section on Grant†s Peace Policy. While Grant served as General in Chief of the United State Army a group of Quakers, know as the Friends, urged him to adopt a new peace policy. This policy was to be founded on Christianity and peace, rather than on force of arms. The policy also called for men of religious conviction to be appointed to agency posts. Grant quickly embraced this idea and pretty soon Grant†s Peace Policy was adopted. Grant didn†t hold any strong convictions about Indians, but he did indicate that: â€Å"Those who do not accept this policy will find the new administration ready for a sharp and severe war policy. † Throughout the entire process, Grant remained as open minded as possible about the peace treaty. The policy wasn†t carefully crafted. It actually came together on its own, and as it took shape it began to have direction and definition. One of the strongest forces guiding Grant was Colonel Ely S. Parker. He had betrayed his racial origins and become a fixture in both the white and Indian worlds. He served as chief of the Senecas and Grand Sachem of the Iroquois Confederacy, and as lawyer, engineer, and soldier for the United States. Prior to the election, Grant relied on Parker more than anyone else when it came to Indian matters. Parker made detailed plans of Indian management that Congress supported and he also served on various commissions and conducted numerous investigations. Parker was so involved and was so respected that after Grant was elected he appointed Ely Commissioner of Indian Affairs. The wars that broke out in light of the peace policy really grabbed my attention. As with all peace treaties there usually will be some drawbacks. The point of the policy was to place all Indians on reservations, where they could be kept away from the settlements and travel routes and where they could be civilized. Indians, on the other hand, did not feel this way. Almost every major battle was fought to force Indians back to their reservations, or to force them on to newly created ones. The combination of battles and diminishing support it once had made the Peace Policy all but forgotten. These wars became somewhat of a regular fixture. Whites wanted all Indians to live on reservations and learn to live like white people. Indians refused to adapt to these new rules so they fought for what they believed in. Overall, I found this book to be less than interesting. My family tree dates back to the Cherokee Indian so I was interested in reading about what Indians actually went through. Robert Utley did a very good job with all of the various illustrations and maps. I especially was intrigued as to the many different pictures of Indians as well as the whites. In reading this book, I learned of yet another race that whites attempted to take over or confine to certain areas. Being a minority helps me keep an open mind to what went on in the past as well as what goes on in today†s society. The struggle that Indians endured in the 1800†³s symbolizes the struggle that some Indians still go through today. Although we do not live in a country where people are forced to live in certain areas, there are some American Indians that still live on reservations because they feel society will not accept them. I did not particularly care to read about all of the whites during that period of time, but I would not have gotten a full understanding unless they were included. I would recommend anyone wanting to learn a good deal about the struggle of the Indian people to read this book.

Ethics of Euthanasia

Courtney Thorne Professor Chesire English 1100, Section 48 7 December 2012 Euthanasia One of the most hotly debated topics going on through the government is the one concerning the ethics of euthanasia also known as assisted suicide. Euthanasia comes from the Greek language meaning ‘Good death’. Euthanasia is suicide, but with the help of a doctor. The government and people argue about whether it should be legalized or not, this is because it can be seen as unethical and it taking the ills life.I think assisted suicide should be legal because we have the right and moral obligation to euthanize our beloved pets when they are suffering and in pain†¦ why are we not morally obligated to provide the same options for ourselves and our loved ones who have no quality of life? Euthanasia fascinates me because not much people of my age are aware of what it is exactly and how much that it could actually help out in the society if it was to be legalized. Euthanasia should be le galized we have ‘the peoples rights’, it cost more to keep someone on life support and it is a way out of unnecessary suffering for the ill.I was interested in researching this topic because I don’t think this topic gets as much attention as I think it should. I am all for assisted suicide and believe people should not be denied their wishes when they want to end their pain when they are terminally ill. However, I was open to learning more about the opposite stance and what the reasons for opposition were. Which I understand that some people are not for euthanasia, but with you reading my essay I hope to persuade you to take in some of my ideas that I will explain to you throughout my paper.I wondered how someone could just deny the peoples right of wanting to pass when they are terminally ill. There are two main kinds of euthanasia; one is voluntary euthanasia which refers to the action taken by the physician and the patient, who both agree to end the patient's life with an informed consent. Then there is involuntary euthanasia that refers to a third party taking a patient's life without the informed consent (like putting and animal down). There are more people for euthanasia than what I expected there too be.This graph shows the debate on whether people are for or against euthanasia. They selected random people and were asked whether they were for euthanasia becoming legal or not. Euthanasia should be legal to save the terminally ill from the unnecessary suffering they face and the families of the terminally ill. We all have our rights being an American, but our country sometimes does not agree with those rights like wanting the right to die. Being an American we should enjoy a right guaranteed in the European Declaration of Human Rights, the right not to be forced to suffer.People who are terminally ill and know there is no life to look forward to should not have to live everyday suffering and make their family suffer with them by watchi ng them, if they want to die by assisted suicide they should be allowed that right and not deny it. I feel like if it was my family member suffering I would suffer watching them suffer and I don’t think that’s fair to me or my family. We use euthanasia on our animals as an act of kindness why can we give humans the same act of kindness and with their consent?Keeping someone alive against their will in my book is morally wrong, and assisted suicide should be legal for those that consent to die that way. People who do not understand the concept of what euthanasia is see it as being morally wrong. The government has set laws against euthanasia because they think they are trying to prevent abuse and to protect the people. People who are against euthanasia see it as an easy way out of their suffering. Most of us who do not understand what euthanasia is fully do not understand why it should be legal, and that when they hear â€Å"suicide† they automatically think â₠¬Å"bad†.Euthanasia is not about the right to die it is about the right to kill. I think the main argument for the support of euthanasia and assisted suicide is that people should have the right to control their life and death, and should be able to end their lives when they wish. People who are terminally ill tend to be on a machine to keep them alive. In this fact of matter is the doctor or the nurses are playing god to their patients by keeping them alive, on a machine. I think we should be able to play god for once and choose our death.For example someone with ALS who is on a machine breathing for them, the machine is keeping them alive and being their god. Why can’t they be their own god and decided if they want to die by assisted suicide? Keeping someone alive and playing god for them isn’t the ethical thing to do. Dr. Jack Kevorkian, better known as â€Å"Dr. Death† was one doctor known as playing the role of â€Å"god†. Dr Jack Kevorkian was the only doctor to let people have their dying wish. This is a passage from Terry Youk; Jack Kevorkian helped terry’s brother with assisted suicide. I of course felt that Jack [Kevorkian] never should have gone to prison I don't believe that the medical service that he provided my brother and others is a crime. I think people look back and see that Jack was the only person that was willing to stand up during a divisive time and fight for what should be a right for all human beings to have choices at the end of their life. I think Jack provided for people that had fallen through the cracks of the health care system a way to die with some peace and dignity. Ultimately, Jack Kevorkian was our only option†¦ I am very grateful to Jack Kevorkian.I feel like he was a compassionate practitioner for my brother at the end of his life. † Feb. 25, 2009 – Terry Youk. I think people should be their own god and choose their own path to death even if it means euthanasia ità ¢â‚¬â„¢s their choice and their consent. With this comes the cost of keeping someone on life support or a machine to help them breath. Life support can cost between $9,000 to $15,000 a year. Drugs for assisted suicide cost up to $45 for each death. So it’s cheaper to let someone die by assisted suicide and have their consent than to keep them on life support.The counter argument for this is clear that people who are not for the legalization of assisted suicide say that the only person that can play god is god himself. God is the only one who can make the decision on when the right time for us to die is. People think that assisted suicide is morally wrong and god has planned their life to be that way and lived that way. They say that god plans out your life for a certain reason and you should just live the way he has made it for you, even if that means suffering.This is a religious view of why euthanasia should not be legalized. Certain religions think that if you choose eutha nasia you will go to hell because god did not seek this out to be their path. â€Å"I am dying. There’s no sense and trying to deny that fact†. This is a quote is from Craig Ewert a patient that decided to die by euthanasia. Craig had ALS and decided he didn’t want to live a life where he couldn’t do anything for himself so he passed with assisted suicide. The way he died was the doctor provided him medicine to drink that would stop his heart.Assisted suicide may not be right in some people’s mind, but in reality the one choosing euthanasia isn’t harming anyone because it is their life and they should be in control of what they do without being judged. Euthanasia is a highly debated subject when it is talked about. Euthanasia should be legal to perform in the United States to end the suffering of the terminally ill, that do not want to live a life where they can’t do anything but suffer and watch the ones they love suffer because they are suffering.Making it legal also gives us more of a people’s choice and us to play or own god and not have someone else make the decisions for us. Euthanasia in my point of view should be legal because it is morally wrong to deny someone their wish in dying and taking their rights from them. Work Cited International Task Force on Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide â€Å"Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide: Frequently Asked Questions,† www. internationaltaskforce. org, Jan. 2010 â€Å"Frequently Asked Questions,† www. nternationaltaskforce. org (accessed May 27, 2010) â€Å"Statement on Euthanasia,† on www. usccb. org, Sep. 12, 1991 â€Å" Terry Youk,† http://euthanasia. procon. org/view. source. php? sourceID=009779 , April 28th. 2010 Stephanie Clayton. â€Å"This House Believes that assisted suicide should be legalized. † idebate. org. 16 Feb 2012. idebate. org, Web. 26 Oct 2012. http://idebate. org/debatabase/debates/philosophy/house-believes- assisted-suicide-should-be-legalized

Technology Make us Lazy and Dumb Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Technology Make us Lazy and Dumb - Essay Example † talks about the effects of various technological devices on the brain of young individuals. Stating that the average teenager in America has three to four electronic gadgets (â€Å"Is Technology Messing with Your Brain?†) the article states just how distracting these gadgets are. Giving everyday examples, the articles strives to show that these technological devices keep the minds of youngsters occupied so much that it does not have any time to rest, and consequently, there is the chance of losing its ability to concentrate. The article has also cited a study published in Pediatrics which showed that children who played a lot of video games before sleeping had lesser retention than those who had not (â€Å"Is Technology Messing with Your Brain?†). Overall, it explained the negative effects that technology and its use can have on our brains. The second article, â€Å"The Digital Age is Making Us Physically and Mentally Lazy?† discusses the same issue, but also talks about the physical effects or changes that technology has brought about in our lives. The article discusses the impact technology has on our physical activities by citing examples from everyday activities. It asserts that whereas before we had to be somewhat physically active to, for example, go meet a friend or go out for a movie, with technology, we do not have to make any physical excursion of the like, citing examples of texting friends and streaming movies on our computers (â€Å"The Digital Age is Making Us Physically and Mentally Lazy?†). However, the article does not agree with the contention that people are becoming mentally lazy due to technology. It, instead, asserts that due to technology making so much information available to us readily, people are actually becoming more knowledgeable than before (â€Å"The Digital Age is Making Us Physically and Mentally Lazy?†). Moreover, the article claims that even though technology has made live easier, bu t they have not removed the need to think in us, therefore, they have not made us mentally lazy (â€Å"The Digital Age is Making Us Physically and Mentally Lazy?†). In, â€Å"Is Technology Messing with Your Brain?† I found the examples of multitasking given to be very useful. Such scenes, where teenagers are involved in multiple activities are very familiar to us; therefore, it was easy to connect with her statement of how this multitasking makes a teenage brain less capable of concentrating on any given subject for long. Moreover, the results of the study that were put in the article were very helpful too. Through discussing the results of the study, the article has proffered proof of the assertions regarding technology lessening our brain’s retention powers. However, the article states that technology takes away from real-life relationships, and this I found to be quite contrary to reality. The logic herein is flawed, because though it may seem as if the kid w ho is hanging out with his computer all day is not hanging out with his friends or parents, in actuality, the teen does get to spend time with his parents and his friends online. Especially since, in an example the article itself gives, some of the kids require technology to be in contact with their parents as they do not live with them. In â€Å"The Digital Age is Making Us Physically and Mentally Lazy?† the way in which examples are given from everyday life is, indeed, very helpful. This makes the reader

Australian Taxation Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Australian Taxation Law - Assignment Example The $5,000 received after the trading period qualify as income for the period ended 30 June 2010. This is in accordance with accruals accounting method; income is recognized when it is earned. All this is in accordance with and requirements of section 6-5. The trading stock for Philip’s business has to be evaluated according to the general rule of accounting for stock-S70-35(1). The difference between the opening and closing stock is added to assessable income because the closing stock exceeds opening stock-S70-35(2). The allowable deductions (division 8) include the $2,000 which was an expense from the replacement of the air conditioner-S25-10. The amount is minimized to the cost that Phillip incurred since he resold the air conditioning system which generated back income-S6-5. W Thomas & co v FCT? bought a building and did not know that the building had damage when they bought it – the courts held that the ATO will treat expenditure that remedies defects, damage or de terioration to property as capital if the defect, damage or deterioration existed at the time of acquisition of the property, and did not arise from the operations of the person who incurs the expenditure. Note – the mere fact that the purchaser did not know that initial repairs were needed at the time of purchase is irrelevant. His interest accrued on a loan that was used in renovating the rental houses resulting in a generation of assessable income-S25-25(1). The $500 he used for replacing the light bulb is also a deductible income since it falls under repairs and replacement-S25-10. Fine paid by Phillip to the local does not qualify as a deduction as per the S26-5 stating that penalties are not deductible amounts. The expenses incurred in the manufacturing of the tennis racquet also, are a part of the deductible allowance as it is an expense incurred in generating an assessable income-S8-1. Under Division 30, donations are deductible allowances as long as they are voluntar y and, no collateral claimed. This can be related to the charity donation. However, the gifts he presented to family and the 5 racquets he took for personal use do not qualify as deductible allowance-S26-54. Paper 2 Joan’s total taxable income Joan’s income $ $ Salary 375,000 Home ware magazine 24,000 13,500 537,500 Agreement 230,000 Payment for damages through accident 360,000 590,000 Total assessable income 1,127,500 Allowable deductions $ $ Pain and suffering 10,000 University Union fees 650 Textbooks 750 Photocopying and writing aid 350 Travel 450 2,200 Total allowable deductions 12,200 Joan’s total taxable income Assessable income 1,127,500 Allowable deductions 12,200 Total taxable income 1,115,300 Joan’s total taxable income amounts to $1,000,300.  

Nursing literature review Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Nursing literature review - Research Paper Example Although each society tries to churn out perfect human beings, the myriad influences of genes, environment and social factors begin to influence the personality of its members in diverse manners, which may develop in the right direction, or undergo some aberration in the process leading to abnormalities. Anxiety and depression are being encountered with increasing frequency due to this interplay and are therefore an intense topic for study and research in today’s society. Endeavors to overcome such disorders have been made through religious efforts, social counseling as well as the tools of modern medicine. The various factors leading to depression and others which reinforce or reduce it are discussed in the following paragraphs. It has been encountered in society that certain individuals are more prone to depression than others. Some people are able to overcome the intimidations of modern society in a more effective manner. The reason for the existence of such differences has led to research in this direction which has generated a number of controversial theories and mechanisms. One such hypothesis suggests that it might be due to the influence of early relational experiences during the developmental stages, which activate the hypophysial-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in an adverse manner (Beatson & Taryan, 2003). Any adverse or intimidating event in later life can trigger depression in such individuals. The basis for the predisposition to depression therefore involves a biochemical process which has been investigated by the authors (Beatson & Taryan, 2003). In a qualitative analysis of literature pertaining to the biochemical basis for predisposition to depression, the authors have compartmentalized the lit erature available into sections which substantiate the facts of this hypothesis in animal models as well as human beings. The authors have presented evidence for the genetic predisposition in some individuals to be more prone to being

Are we taking it too far by blaming fast food restaurants for obesity Research Paper

Are we taking it too far by blaming fast food restaurants for obesity When is it individual responsibility and when is it appropriate to place blame - Research Paper Example Obesity is a major risk factor for several diseases which include cardiovascular problems, Diabetes, Gall stone and is a major health concern today. Working for BBC, Ray Dunne came up with some alarming statistics. The numbers around 300m people worldwide are obese, one in three American adults is obese and one in four Britons is obese. Obesity is estimated to cost the US $75bn annually. Obesity can reduce life expectancy by up to nine years and poor diet and a lack of exercise killed 400,000 Americans in 2000. These are some jaw dropping an alarming factors but the big question that needs to be asked in who is responsible for all this and who is to be put at blame? Last couple of decades showed a rapid growth of corporate world and so did the world of ‘food chain’ business came up. Now there are thousands of food chains all over the world and MacDonald’s being a leading industry in that. In 2003, Jazlyn Bradley aged 19 and Ashley Pelman aged 14, unable to resist the temptation of MacDonald’s and weighing 270 pounds and 170 pounds respectively sued MacDonald for making them obese. They argued that they didn’t know about the food ingredients and their father said that he always thought MacDonald’s was good for his children’s health. The court didn’t seem to agree and said that, "Its not the place of the law to protect them against their own excesses." This totally explains my personal opinion about it as well since it is the responsibility of an individual to decide what is good for health and how much they can consume it. After this case, US House of Representatives also passed a legislation which made it illegal to sue any food chain just because it makes people obese. Diane Fields (5) seems to propose the same idea. Just like you can’t blame tobacco industry for mouth cancer and casinos for problem of gambling, similarly you can’t blame fast restaurants

The University's Code of Conduct Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The University's Code of Conduct - Lab Report Example But CQU guarantees the environment that is free from bullied, unlawful discrimination or sexually harassment. Supervisors are not only responsible for this code of conduct but staff members are also responsible to maintain an environment free from bullied, unlawful discrimination or sexually harassment. To avoid harassment and unlawful discrimination in the institution, supervisor is aware of workplace culture, staff attitude, rate of absenteeism of the staff and staff turnover. Staff members have right to make a complaint if they are suffering from workplace harassment, sexual harassment and unlawful discrimination. There are different options for the resolution of complaints, such as: (i) Expressing mistakes, responsible for workplace harassment, to a person who is conducting them (ii) Making complaint to the relevant person who is dealing with lodging of formal complaints (iii) Seeking advice from cultural director (iv) Getting fruitful advice from Employee Assistance Program (EAP ) (v) Bringing the issue in the notice of Anti-discrimination Commission or Human Rights Commission. Ethically it is required that the issue of harassment or unlawful discrimination is kept confidential and the issue should be resolved at best lowest possible level to win the trust of the staff members. The purpose of the avoiding such type of harassment and discrimination, which is an undesirable situation, is that to provide employees an opportunity to work in safe and respectable environment, that is free from bullying, sexual harassment, and any kind of discrimination. University Staff members, Visitors, Council members and Contractors head this policy. The policy does not cover the grievances related to the classification level, workload and condition of employment. It is necessary that resolution must be addressed in accordance with the resolution mechanism. Two major parties are involved in this procedure: first is the complainant; who identifies the staff member who witnesse d the bullying, sexual harassment, or unlawful discrimination. The other party is respondent; is a person whom complaint has been made regarding bullying, sexual harassment, or unlawful discrimination. Responsibility for implementation puts on Vice Chancellor, President and Immediate Boss to comply with the policy and no to tolerate any unacceptable behavior in the institution. The policy implementation is monitored by the people and cultural director of the institution. Complaint Resolution Overview CQ University ensures the working environment that is free from bullying, sexual harassment, or unlawful discrimination and Central Queensland University Enterprise Agreement (2009) ensures solid procedure that will not tolerate these behaviors that cause this situation. To resolve the harassment and discrimination, university uses different procedures that will be discussed later on. Complaint Resolution Procedures One-on-One Resolution In the first instance, complainant may seek to ad dress the issue to the respondent if he/she feels comfortable and safe for doing so. Otherwise complainant may seek assistance from the supervisor or cultural director who deals with this procedure. The issue can be resolved by apologizing, providing training or counseling or stopping the alleged behavior. Other way is to seek policy advice, support or guidance on how to address the is

Does Mortgage backed securities reduce bank risks, Evidence from Essay

Does Mortgage backed securities reduce bank risks, Evidence from European Market - Essay Example Using these variables, a total of 55 transactions are recorded with 36 being synthetic and the rest true-sale transactions. For clarity reason, all transactions that do not have any of the originators whose data are presented in this report are excluded: this is important because it would be difficult to determine the level of risk transfer involved in these transactions. Some relevant data for this report are obtained from Securitisation Data Report of the European Securitisation Forum covering the four quarters from 2005 to 2009. This provides a wealth of references among some European Countries including the major Euro Block financial markets like the United Kingdom, Germany, France and the Italy. The comparative prices of MBS in some of these countries are also presented in the report. It will be helpful to, first of all, provide brief descriptions of the European banks covered by this report before elaborating on the analysis of the strategic risks these originators are involved in during MBS-transactions. My sample period is from 2005 to 2009; their transaction information is obtained from the reports produced by the rating agencies as well as intra-bank transactional updates. The European banks whose transactions are presented in this report are moderately large in size with total assets averaging 102 bn Euro, while the standard deviation stands considerably at 78 within a significant range differential from 0.236 to 1.262. Of special interest is their average operating income (profit) which is 615 m Euro, with a standard deviation of 1178 showing an impressive range from a negative value (-2.2.46 to huge positive value (17, 542). Although it is possible that some of the originators investigated in this report may have reported some losses during the entire sample periods; however, the emphasis here is that appreciable amount of profits are recorded during the MBS-transactions detailed here. Based on the average value, these

Roles and Responsibilities in Lifelong Learning Essay Example for Free

Roles and Responsibilities in Lifelong Learning Essay Unit 001 Roles. responsibilities and relationships in lifelong learning As Education Officer for the Heritage Service (HS) my Job is to provide inspiring, enjoyable and informative learning that promotes lifelong learning and encourages regular return visits to the councils museums (HS Education Policy), In order to do this in line council and national/international legislation, regulatory requirements and codes of practice. These include the: Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 This act provides for the health and safety of people who may be affected by the ctivities of work including learners and visitors to educational sites. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 All our activities are risk assessed regularly In line with this act _ Data Protection Act (1998) All data taken when booking activities, evaluating activities, taking photos Is kept as stated In the act_ Everyone who Is responsible for using data has to follow strict rules called data protecuon prlnclples_ They must make sure the Information Is: used fairly and lawfully used for limited, specifically stated purposes used In a way that s adequate, relevant and not excessive ept for no longer than Is absolutely necessary handled according to peoples data protection rights kept sate and secure accurate not transferred outside the uK without adequate protection This Is also reiterated in the councils Data Protection Policy. We also ensure that we adhere to The Protection ot Children Act (1999) and the Councils Sateguarding Adults Policy The Equality Act (2010) The Councils Equality Policy Statement says that The council is committed to achieving equality ot opportunity in our employment practices and provision of services. The policy is xplicitly linked to the requirements of the council as an employer and provider of services in adhering to the Equality Act 2010. When devising activities also follow the councils equality statement in line with Equality Act As Ann Gravells (2012) says

Investigation of Unknown Carbohydrate

Investigation of Unknown Carbohydrate INTRODUCTION From the name itself, Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbons that are polar in nature. The building blocks of carbohydrates are monosaccharides which are simple sugars due to their low molecular weight. Carbohydrates are the product of photosynthesis from the condensation of carbon dioxide that requires light and chlorophyll. Carbohydrates have a vital role in the nutrition of organisms since it is the major source of energy. ATP is energy released by plants and it is the needed by the body to function accordingly. Carbohydrates have different structures thus it gives distinct reactions to various reagents depending on its chemical composition. It can be grouped into monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides could be classified as polyhrdoxy aldoses or ketoses. These are the simplest carbohydrates that cannot be broken down into smaller aggregates. These are aldehydes that contain two or more hydroxyl groups. Disaccharides are two simple sugars that are linked together by a glycosidic bond- an ether bond formed from the merging of two hydroxyl groups between monosaccharides. Polysaccharides, on the other hand, are made up of multiple sugar units attached to a group of disaccharides. They are formed by a glycosidic linkage. MATERIALS AND METHODS For the identification of the unknown carbohydrates samples, 1.00 ml of two unknown samples were transferred in a test tube and 1.00 ml of Molisch reagents was added as well as 1.00 ml of concentrated . For each of the tests- Iodine test, Benedicts test, Barfoeds test, Seliwanoffs test and 2,4-DNP test, fresh samples were needed for each. Table 1 shows the needed amount of reagent for each test for a qualitative analysis. The identity of the two unknown samples was then distinguished based on the reaction of the given set of carbohydrates. For the hydrolysis of starch, 50.00 ml of 5% starch solution was placed in a 100 ml beaker. About 5.00 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid was added. Covering the beaker with aluminum foil, it was then heated until boiled in a water bath. About 1.00 ml of the sample was placed in two separate test tubes with the addition of 1.00 ml of iodine reagent to one and 1.00 ml of Benedicts reagent to the other. The sample was heated continuously. With an interval of 5 minutes, 1.00 ml of the sample was transferred into two separate tees tubes once again and with the addition of the iodine and Benedicts reagent until a blue-black precipitate is formed with the iodine reagent and a brick red color with the Benedicts reagent. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 2 shows the desired color change of the carbohydrates upon the addition of certain reagents. Molischs test is a general test for carbohydrates that determines the presence of carbonyl groups, which gives off a deep purple colored substance. The Iodine test gives off a blue-black colored complex as a positive reaction towards iodine. Benedicts test determines the identity of the reducing sugars which results to an orange-rust color. Barfoeds test has the same purpose as Benedicts test for determining the reducing sugars, but this Barfoeds test gives off a positive test for reducing monossaccharides only. Seliwanoffs test determines the presence of aldoses and ketoses, only the ketoses give off a positive reaction resulting to a brick red color. The 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine or the 2.4-DNP test determines the reaction of monosaccharides that gives off yellow- black crystals of osazones that intensifies the color of the substance. Molischs test is a general test for carbohydrates. Concentrated sulfuric acid was added producing a deep purple colored substance. The carbohydrate undergoes dehydration wherein water was released upon the addition of sulfuric acid. Pentoses and hexoses react with the sulfuric acid resulting to the positive color change. For the Iodine test, the only sugar that reacted was starch. Starch is a polysaccharide- a mixture of amylose and amylopectin. An amylose forms a helical structure in water. Iodine could easily penetrate through the helical structure, since monosaccharides and disaccharides arent too small they do not react with iodine. Upon the penetration of the iodine to the core of the helix, it produces a blue-black colored substance. When heated, the blue color disappears because the helical ring of the amylose is disrupted. Iodine is does not have the capacity to bind itself back to helix. The blue color returns when the starch is cooled. The iodine can now bind back to the helix. Benedicts test identifies the reducing sugars, the monosaccharides and the disaccharides. This reagent is a weak oxidizing reagent. Cuprous oxide was converted from cuprous hydroxide. The former determines the presence of the reducing sugar. Seliwanoffs test differentiates ketoses from aldoses. The ketose yields a brick red color upon the addition of heat. Ketose undergoes dehydration when diluted in HCl and heated. Barfoeds test identifies the reducing sugars as well, but this test is specific only for monosaccharides. Carbohydrates exposed to the Barfoed reagent, a mixture of copper acetate and glacial acetic acid, undergoes reduction. The reducing monosaccharide reduces the cupric ions to cuprous ions in acidic medium (4). The cuprous ions formed in turn, reduce the colorless phosphomolybdic acid to blue phosphomolybdous acid (4). The positive color change for monosaccharides was exhibited by a deep blue color, while the disaccharide exhibited a light blue color. The 2,4- DNP test is a general test for carbohydrates. This determines the presence of aldehydes and ketones. The aldoses and ketoses are quite similar. The reducing sugars produce a positive test. The identity of starch could be easily distinguished through the iodine test. When the starch is hydrolyzed it can have a positive result in the Benedicts test. The acetal linkages in starch are hydrolyzed in hot aqueous acid (6). Benedicts test is a useful test in detecting the sugar concentration in the urine of a patient diagnosed with diabetes mellitus. The color of the precipitate gives an approximate percentage of sugar excreted in the urine (4). The color determines the percentage of sugar present in the urine. If the precipitate is blue, sugar is absent, green if there are 0-0.5% sugar, yellow if 1% sugar, orange if 1.5% sugar, and red if 2% sugar or more.

Ways Music Brings Us Closer To Truth

Ways Music Brings Us Closer To Truth The quotation from Pablo Picasso said, Art is a lie that brings us nearer to the truth. By art, Picasso meant anything that was of a creative form; painting, literature, music, dancing, etc. The way the word lie is being used is not necessarily they way we would usually imply lying. Lie is used here instead of more like a way or path, or even substance that once weve been engulfed in we can see the truth for what it really is. Truth can be seen in a similar way, its not necessarily the truth but a realization of something that we didnt know about beforehand. The art form that I plan on using to validate Picassos quote is music. With music, you can become closer to the truth through, emotion, the language and words that are being used, with perception. Music, whether being Rap, Classical, or Rock all has a message hidden within the words or instrumentals that are being used. There are many ways in which music brings us closer to the truth, regardless of what genre is used. If a person has just had heartbreak, and choose to listen to love songs repeatedly emotion begins to arise. For a girl, of course she might be in tears and while listening to the songs the thought of her past relationship will come up. But it is possible that by listening to the songs, and the words being said that she might come to the realization that there are other people out there and that the break-up might not have been as bad after all. For a boy, he might use music to help motivate him for a big game that he is about to play in. The language being used could be seen as encouraging words that allow him to be brought up and well prepared for what is ahead of him. For anybody music can motivate, alter feelings or opinions on a matter, or help someone out in a situation. Music can be seen as a second conscience if wanted to be. Going back to the example of a boy being motivated be fore a big game, he is he listening to the song. Heart of a Champion by Nelly, the lyrics that are used in the chorusAint no way they can stop me now Nelly Cause Im on my way, I can feel my ring coming Its the blood of a champion, pumping Deep inside my veins, too much pride to be running Ima get what I can and more, even if My blood, my sweat, and my tears dont mean nothing Its the heart of a champion (its the heart of me) (Its the heart of a..) in me. (http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/nelly/heartofachampion.html) These lyrics can be seem very motivational and almost identical to his thoughts about the game that he is about to play in. There are many theories regarding when and where music originated. Many agree that music began even before man existed. Historiographers point out that there are six periods of music and each period has a particular style of music that greatly contributed to what music is today (http://musiced.about.com/od/beginnersguide/a/intro.htm) The six periods of music include: Medieval/Middle ages, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic, 20th century. Music during the middle Ages is characterized by the beginning of musical notation as well as polyphony, there were two general types of music styles; the monophonic and the polyphonic. Renaissance means rebirth and in music this period brought about many changes in the way music was created and perceived. The word baroque comes from the Italian word barocco which means bizarre. The Baroque period was a time when composers experimented with form, styles and instruments. This period saw the development of opera and instrumental music. The music of the Classical period, which spans from 1750 to 1820, is characterized by simpler melodies and forms such as the sonatas. The piano was undoubtedly the primary instrument used by composers during the Classical period. Historiographers define the Romantic Music period from the 1800 to 1900. It is characterized by using music to tell a story or express an idea, and the use of various instruments including wind instruments. Melodies are fuller and more dramatic. Music during the 20th century brought about many innovations on how music was performed and appreciated. Artists were more willing to experiment on new music forms and used technology to enhance their compositions. (http://musiced.about.com/od/beginnersguide/a/intro.htm) Lyrics were actually poetry that is written by a person who has been through a situation and felt the need to write about it. The artist, or songwriter can been see as the person who is setting up the lie to help others come closer to the truth. If the writer has been through a hard time, the music he or she is producing helps those that are listening to realize that everyone is human and we have all been through it. Music can also sometimes be seen as therapeutic, or your own personal therapist. With these kinds of lyrics, they can be seem as almost autobiographical, a prime example for autobiographical lyrics is: Grandpa by Of Montreal. The lyrics in Grandpa are describing what an older man who is obviously a grandfather, does in his daily life. (http://www.metrolyrics.com/the-autobiographical-grandpa-lyrics-of-montreal.html) Lyrics can be calming and help achieve smoothing flows and words that are encouraging, sometimes that is all a person needs to calm down or to perceive someth ing correctly. But what happens when some music doesnt have words but just pure instruments how does a person still become motivated or come to a realization with just pure music? Classical music does not use words, but instead uses instruments to get its point across. How is it possible that with no words, someone can become nearer to the truth? This is where in WOK; emotion and perception comes in. If the tempo in the song is very fast and low, it could make the person realize how angry they are about something, as to where if the tempo is slow and not has low they can begin to calm down. Though the speed and melody that comes from classical music, it can change someones emotion after listening to it. If a person is distraught or very upset, they can listen to a song have their mood instantly altered. This type of music can even help them realize that the situation they are in is not as dire as they perceived it to be. If someone was going into an art museum, and Mozart was playing while people were viewing the art, some would say that it was very calming and allowed them to understand the art being viewed even better. This example shows, that music with or without words can still alter a persons feelings toward something or someone. There is a chance that with the classical music being played, that it could irritate and become very disruptive to a person in a art gallery. Maybe this person cannot stand classical music, or just likes the idea of absorbing the art without any noise being made in the back. Yes, it is easily seen how music can alter a persons feelings toward something, but it doesnt determine whether that alteration is negatively or positive. One genre of music, that may not fully validate Picassos statement, is Rapping. Not of all but most of the rappers talk about all the money, women, and cars that they have. One of the well known rappers of today that go against this statement is Lupe Fiasco. Thus there is still a big issue with a lot of young men who listen to this type of music, because they believe this is the life and that that is actually how the rappers live. Most rappers who actually do all that talking about all the stuff they have, are not speaking of truth. This is where the statement can be seen as invalid. The rapper is telling a lie but he is not bringing the persons listening to him closer to the truth but deeper in non-realistic world. On the contrary, there are some rappers who do live the life they speak of, and someones non-realistic world could be another mans real reality. However, not ever rapper speaks of lies; some tell stories that could be seen as almost fables during their songs. With the ref erence to fables I mean that the songs could be seen as stories that have a hidden story within it. Therefore, not every rapper should be seen in a negative light. Gil Scott-Heron (born April 1, 1949) is an American poet, musician, and author known primarily for his late 1960s and early 1970s work as a spoken word soul performer and his collaborative work with musician Brian Jackson. His collaborative efforts with Jackson featured a musical fusion of jazz, blues and soul music, as well as lyrical content concerning social and political issues of the time, delivered in both rapping and melismatic vocal styles by Scott-Heron. The music of these albums, most notably Pieces of a Man and Winter in America in the early 1970s, influenced and helped engender later African-American music genres such as hip hop and neo soul. Scott-Herons recording work is often associated with black militant activism and has received much critical acclaim for one of his most well-known compositions The Revolution Will Not Be Televised. On his influence, Allmusic wrote Scott-Herons unique proto-rap style influenced a generation of hip-hop artists. (http://gilscottheron.ne t/about/) Music is a big part of my life; I listen to it more than I watch the television. It allows me to get more focus; it motivates me, and allows me to realize things that I would not have been able to on my own. I listen to all genres but my personal favorite is RnB. With RnB the music isnt too fast or too slow, and the messages that are normally being portrayed go along with real life situations, and quickly help me to recover some of the truths that I need about life. Art is a lie that brings us nearer to the truth. Music is an art which is a lie that brings us nearer to the truth, by stating that in my opinion I believe that music is one of the biggest art forms that helps bring people closer to the truth. Music alters peoples opinions and feelings towards things and replaces them with those of the words they heard in the song. Music is everywhere. Even when you wait in an elevator there is music, allowing the ride to be smoothing and relaxing. Music is in the dentist and doctors office while youre waiting so you dont become so antsy. Just while walking in a grocery store if you listen, you will hear music being played while you are grabbing for that box of cereal. Music surrounds us. Music is in nature, the birds singing, the wind blowing, the sun shine-would allow a person to have a good day, as to where if the birds werent singing, the wind was blowing harshly and the sun behind clouds due to the fact of rain the emotion you would feel would d iffer. Music brings us nearer to the truth everyday without us even knowing it. Music tries to do its job but its up to us and how we interpret it whether or not the job was done correctly.

The Magic of The Coral :: Music Band Musical Essays

The Magic of The Coral The Coral fly under the radar of popular mainstream music in America: less marketed than Australian rock band and Strokes-sound-a-likes Jet, The Coral are probably slightly less-known than The Shins, perhaps on the same level as British Sea Power. But The Coral needn’t worry. Those who know them like them, and want to spread the word (despite the good feeling of discovering a band that is a gem of a secret). I first discovered The Coral about a year ago—I saw they had been on Late Night with Conan O’Brien, and their CD was $10. It turned out to be a great CD—and I then knew of a great British band that my father (in England) didn’t become familiar with until about ten months later. The Coral are six young men from Liverpool, England: brothers James (vocal and guitar) and Ian (drums) Skelly, Nick Power (piano, organ and vocals), Lee Southall (guitar and vocals), Paul Duffy (bass and vocals), and Bill Ryder-Jones (guitar and trumpet). Ian Skelly, Southall, Duffy and Ryder-Jones are all the tender age of 19, Power is 20, and older sibling James Skelly is the oldest at 22. For a band of younguns their sound is so well-developed and unique—psychedelic folk-rock with a little Britpop—and comes from the distinctive twang of Southall’s guitar and singer Skelly’s distinguishing, strong vocals and lyrics that unfold like a story. With the release of their self-titled debut album, The Coral established themselves as a talented young band that would only get better with time. Their second CD, Magic and Medicine, confirms that. While their sound has matured, they haven’t lost any of the whimsy or frivolity that works so well for them . The first song, â€Å"In The Forest,† isn’t as striking as the first CD’s opener, â€Å"Spanish Main.† However, it picks up with more standard Coral-type numbers like â€Å"Don’t Think You’re The First,† â€Å"Talkin’ Gypsy Market Blues,† and especially â€Å"Bill McCai.† I’ve found The Coral are great storytellers: some of their songs are about fictional events that develop over years, and—in the case of â€Å"Bill McCai†Ã¢â‚¬â€the undoing of a man unhappy in his life. â€Å"Bill McCai† mirrors exactly the first CD’s â€Å"Simon Diamond,† about a man who was so fed up with his life that he turned himself into a tree.

How Democratic Is the American Constitution? Essay -- Book Reviews Rob

Robert Dahl's book How Democratic is the American Constitution, reminds us that the American Constitution wasn't the only possible base for a democratic system in America. In this book Dahl explains some of the democratic and undemocratic aspects of the American constitution. He also explains what should be changed to improve it. In chapter 2, Dahl begins explaining about the Framers of the constitution who had the task of basically creating a new government that combated all of the problems of the new United States of America. The Framers desperately needed to gather knowledge on how to go about creating a new society but, there was very little information that would help them. Dahl then listed a few events in history that if the Framers knew about it would have significantly changed the way the constitution was created. First, there was a peaceful democratic revolution which altered the way the constitutional system would work. Second, during this revolution new political institutions would be created, this would significantly alter the way the Framers setup their framework of...

Posada Amazonas

Problem: The commoners appear to suffer disproportionately from problems related to alcohol abuse (such as absenteeism, drunkenness, and theft). This hinders the Posada Amazonas’ smooth operation and its ability to improve service quality and occupancy. In fact, in any given year, turnover can easily reach 50%, with as many as six people leaving. Solutions: (1) Design and implement health-related programs to improve the well-being of the commoners. The community’s governing body will enact new rules and policies aimed at reducing alcohol abuse by, for example, passing resolutions prohibiting alcohol use among any employee of Posada Amazonas the day before any employee is scheduled to work. * Train a group of new community leaders to address substance abuse and other health issues facing the community. * Form committees to work on strategic plans addressing alcohol abuse. By form coalitions, the community can work together to solve health issues. (2) Create activities in each of the following primary areas: * Public Awareness/Community-Wide Prevention.Draw on native cultural traditions in the hopes that as people identify more with their heritage, they will be less likely to abuse alcohol or other substances. * Early Identification and Treatment. Create projects that seek to intervene with those at high risk. * Alcoholism Treatment and Aftercare. Focus on providing options for commoners returning from treatment, such as support groups and entering training programs. These programs will be funded by the net profit paid to the Ese'eja community by the Posada Amazonas project.If turnover can be eliminated, Posada Amazonas could create a working team to ensure a smooth operation for the lodge. Problem: Posada Amazonas’ approach to integrating the lodge into the community and how it trains and prepares the commoners for their jobs needs to be reevaluated. Solution: Maintain and increase the commoners’ involvement and stake in the lodge. Th e commoners form an integral part of the community, although their customs and attitudes toward vary somewhat from those of Rainforest Expeditions.This can be accomplished through: * Revised training methods and participation of indigenous community members in all lodge positions that will be more in line with their culture and values. * Community participation in all aspects of project design, management, and operations. * Combining wildlife conservation, management, and research practices to develop local natural attractions. * Monitoring and evaluation of the economic, ecological, and social impacts of tourism on the area and community * Enhancing and preserving indigenous cultural values.

Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Essay

Introduction One of the most important theoretical constructs in public administration is the politics-administration dichotomy. For more than a century, the politicsadministration dichotomy has been one of the most disreputable Issues in the field of public administration. The politics-administration dichotomy has had a strange history in public administration. It expands and contracts, rises and falls, but never to go away (Svara & Overeem, 2006: 121).At the heart of the public administration is relationship between administrators, on one hand, and politicians and the public on the other hand. The nature of that relationship and the proper role of political leaders and administrators in the administrative and political process have been the subject of considerable debate. In importance of the politics and administration, Waldo (1987) wrote: Nothing is more central in thinking about public administration than the nature and interrelations of politics and administration. Nor are the nature and interrelations of politics and administration matters only for academic theorizing. What is more important in the day-today, year-to-year, decade-to-decade operation of government than the ways in which politics and administration are conceptualized, rationalized ,and related one to the other. 1 2 PH.D student of public administration, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran. PH.D student of public administration, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran. 130 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate In this article we review history of the politics-administration dichotomy in five section. First, we examine classical conceptualizations of relationship between politics and administration in early author’s notes such as Wilson, Goodnow and Weber. We then argue that how the dichotomy model rise after founders by the scientific management and the principles of administration Movements. Then, we describe relationship between politics and administration after scientific management that in this time the politics-administration dichotomy rejected and emphasized on administrators policymaking role, specially under the New public administration (NPA).In next section we contend that how in 80 and 90 decades insisted on separation of policy and administration by the New Public Management (NPM) and the Reinventing Government (RG) Movements. In final section, we review new trends and views on debate that introduce the complementarily model of politics and administration. 1. Early views about the politics and administration relationship: Wilson, Goodnow and Weber Although the politics-administration dichotomy was not current as a theoretical construct until the late 1940s when it first became an important issue in the literature of public administration, most scholars now trace it to Woodrow Wilson. Wilson’s essay (1887) with title of â€Å"The Study of Administration† was not cited for many years after publication, but it is an exemplar of an stream of reformist thinking about government in the late nineteenth century. Wilson intended to shield administration from political interference, He wrote: The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics†¦. Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices (Wilson, 1887: 18). Wilson was concerned with both the corrupting and politicizing interference of party organizations in administrative affairs (Stillman, 1973). He was critical of the way Congress handled core legislative functions. He stated that Congress policy making was haphazard and its oversight was weak. When Wilson suggested the clearer differentiation of politics and administration, he was seeking to strengthen and redirect the former while protecting the latter (Svara, 1998: 52). In The Study of Administration, Wilson explained the division of functions of Government as follows: Public administration is detailed and systematic execution of public law†¦but the general laws†¦are obviously outside of and above administration. The broad plans of governmental action are not administrative; the detailed execution of such plans is administrative (Wilson, 1966: 372). ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 131 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate However, Wilson originally considered politics and administration as independent, but later embraced version of the dichotomy, which assumed that politics and administration interact to improve the organic state (Martin, 1988).In this time Wilson asserted that administrators would directly interpret and respond to public opinion. Therefore, they should be involved in the policy process and elected officials should be involved in the administrative process (Wilson, 1966: 375). Wilson’s change of mind can be explained that On the one hand, He admired the administration of European countries and proposed learning from them, which would not have been possible unless administration was distinctly separate from politics. On the other hand, his ultimate concern was to promote democracy, for he believed that the function of administration was to rescue democracy from its own excesses (Yang & Holzer, 2005: 113-4). Miewald (1984: 25-6) contend that this view of administrators was even clearer in Wilson’s later lectures that stated the real function of administration is not merely ministerial, but adaptive, guiding, discretionary. It must accommodate and realize the law in practice. In Miewald’s view, such administrators also were politicians and they must have the freedom to make ethical decisions. Van Riper (1984: 209) asserted that Wilson can not be blame or give credit for originating the dichotomy. In his view, Wilson like some of his contemporaries, simply wanted to advance the partisan (not political) neutrality of the civil service. Svara (1998: 52) argue that Wilson’s view of the administrative function was broad and not consistent with the dichotomy model as it came to be articulated later. He refer to this Wilson’s note that large powers and unhampered discretion seem to me the indispensable conditions of responsibility for administrators. The European version of the dichotomy was accepted by Frank Goodnow. In his book â€Å"Politics and Administration† (1900), Goodnow attacked to the executive, legislative, and judicial functions as three basic functions of government. Instead, he argued, there were two basic functions of government: the expression of the popular will and the execution of that will. The three traditional powers were derived from the two functions, and each of the three branches of government combined in different measure both the expression and the execution of the popular will. Goodnow argued that the function of politics was to express the state’s will and the function of administration was to execute the state’s will. He contented that it was analytically possible to separate administration from politics, but practically impossible toad the two functions to one branch of government (Goodnow, 1900: 9-13). Goodnow argued that certain aspects of administration were harmed by politics and should have been shielded from it. He argued: â€Å"political control over administrative functions is liable†¦to produce inefficient administration in that it makes administrative officers feel that what is demanded of them is not so much work that will improve their own department, as compliance with the behests of the political party† (Goodnow, 1900: 83). 132 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Svara (1998: 53) believed that in Goodnow’s writing there is a continuity between the political and administrative spheres, not a separation of the two, except as it applies to insulating administrative staff from partisan political inference. Because of Goodnow and other scholars at this time were interested in strengthening the relationship between administrators and elected officials rather than separating them. In sum, It should be recognized that Wilson and Goodnow aimed to eliminate the spoils system by freeing administration from political intervention and establishing a merit system in its place. They particularly opposed political appointments and patronage (Caiden, 1984: 53-7; Fry, 1989: 1036; Rohr, 2003: xiii-xvii; Rosenbloom, 2008: 58). They were more concerned with the improvement of administrative practice than with establishing a theoretical Construct (Stillman, 1973: 586). In other word, the dichotomy was not merely an analytical device for them, but first of all a practical imperative. To Wilson and Goodnow politics bore too strong an influence on public administration. Their’s aim was to take politics out of administration (Fry,  1989: 1036-7). In early twentieth century, Weber also arrived to a dichotomy between politics and administration, but from the opposite direction of Wilson and Goodnow. Weber argued that politics are too weak to curb administrative power, and that is the danger of Beamtenherrschaft (government by functionaries) that treat government. Therefore, he insisted that it was essential that administration stay out of politics (Weber, 1919/1968: 28). In â€Å"Politikals Beruf† Weber draws a sharp line between administrators and politicians: According to his proper vocation, the genuine civil servant†¦should not engage in politics, but administer, above all impartially†¦. Hence, he shall precisely not do what the politician, the leader as well as his following, must always and necessarily do, namely, fight. For partisanship, fight, passion are stadium are the politician’s element. (Weber, 1919/1968: 27-8) According to Weber, in the political controversies public administrators should operate above all impartially and remain politically neutral. In sum, It should be said that in founder’ s views it was partisan politics they wanted to keep apart from public administration rather than politics per se (Van Riper, 1984: 209; Ranney, 1949). Overeem (2005: 317) contended that in it’s classical conceptualizations the dichotomy between politics and administration implied a deep concern about the political neutrality of administrators. Whether attempts were made to take politics out of administration, as in the case of Wilson and Goodnow, or the other way around, as in the case of Weber, the aim was always to render administration impartial, an outsider to political controversy. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 133 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate 2. Toward the dichotomy: raise of the politics-administration dichotomy concept after founders  Yang and Holzer (2005: 114) believed that in deciphering Wilson and Goodnow, practitioners and academicians incorporated their own beliefs and reconstructed (or distorted) the two authors’ intentions. This misreading, they argued, is no surprise because in light of the Progressive context Openness to the separation of administration from politics was necessary if public administration was to emerge as an autonomous field, an urgent and legitimate attitude at a time when politics perversely intruded into administration, as exemplified by the spoils system. There is agreement that the idea of separation between politics and administration (Dichotomy) diverged from the earlier approaches by Wilson and Goodnow. Van Riper (1984: 209) argue that Wilson and Goodnow’s ideas do not correspond to a dichotomy. Waldo (1948: 108), Appleby (1949: 16), Golembiewski (1977: 9), and Caiden (1984: 60) also have same views. Rabin and Bowman (1984: 4) content that the distinction between politics and administration identified by Wilson and Goodnow had been converted by thirties authors into a dichotomy. Martin demonstrates the thinking of the thirties as follows: In the atmosphere provided by scientific management, a mechanistic concept of public administration came to prevail widely and in important circles. Administration was separated severely from the legislative body†¦. Politics was anathema-not the politics practiced by administrators, but the politics of the politicians (1952: 667). According to Caiden (1984: 60-1), in the thirties, there was a narrower conception of administration as being the management of organizations without regard to purpose, persons, or objectives, that is a generic science of management. Because of the purpose and methods of the two spheres were different, not only could administration be taken out of politics, but politics could be taken out of administration. Thus, the dichotomy model and the scientific practice of administration became the dominant modes of inquiry in this time. Demir and Nyhan (2008: 83) note that the politics-administration dichotomy sought to minimize politics in public administration by prescribing expertise, neutrality, and hierarchy. This values more than of all was insisted in the thirties. Van Riper (1984: 209-10) also argued that  between, 1910 and 1950, there did in the literature and practice of public administration a kind of distance between politics and administration. The need for a sharp division was justified to permit scientific methods to be established, and these methods both closed off administration to the untrained politician and at the same time made the administrator an expert who was above politics. In Gulick’s view, the politics and administration were differentiated not in terms of principle, but in terms of specialization and the division of labor. He noted: The reason for separating politics from administration is not that their combination is a violation of a principle of government. The 134 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate reason for insisting that the elected legislative and executive officials shall not interfere with the details of administration, and that the rank and file of the permanent administrators shall be permanent and skilled and shall not meddle with politics, is that this division of work makes use of specialization and appears to give better results than a system where such a differentiation does not exist. (cited by Waldo, 1948: 124) Summarizing such views, It should be said that the dichotomy model was not a direct idea identified by founders of public administration but a transformation of those ideas to make them part of the mechanistic approach that dominated in the twenties and thirties. The idea of strict separation (dichotomy model) was part of scientific management and the principles of administration that abandoned starting 1940 and replaced by ideas that emphasized interaction between politics and administration. 3. Interaction between policy and administration Although in the thirties some of authors such as Gaus, White, and Dimock had been arguing that administrators should have a role in policymaking, but During the 1940s the dichotomy dominated the field of public administration.  In the late 1940s and early 1950s, The politics-administration Dichotomy was increasingly criticized, came under attack and was rejected by many authors. Waldo (1948: 128) reviewed the extensive literature of the issue and concluded that any simple division of government into politics and administration is inadequate. He noted: As the 1930s advanced, doubt and dissent increased. In the 1940s refutation and repudiation came to the fore. By the 1950s it had become common to refer to the politics administration dichotomy as an outworn if not ludicrous creed (1987: 93).  We can see the most criticism in Appleby’s work. In â€Å"Policy and Administration† (1949), Appleby identified politics as everything having to do with the government and everything the government does. Thus, he concluded, administration could indeed not be no part of it (1949: 3). In Appleby’s view, it is impossible to draw a meaningful institutional distinction between politics or policy and administration. Any issue dealt with in the hierarchy of government is regarded as policy by those who operate below the level at which it is settled, and as administration by those operating above that level. If an issue becomes more controversial, it will rise in the hierarchy and, thus, will be seen as policy by a greater number of functionaries and as administration by a smaller number of functionaries. Appleby noted that in the perspective of an outside observer or the public administration theorist, policy and administration are treated together at every level (1949: 22). Thus, whether an issue is policy or administration becomes completely relative; policy and administration are only two sides of the same coin, ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 135 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate and there is no use in speaking about them as two distinct governmental functions. Appleby concluded that public administration is not autonomous, exclusive or isolated but is policy making nonetheless (1949: 170). He also  did draw a horizontal line between partisan politics and other forms of politics: Everything having to do with the government and everything the government does is political, for politics is the art and science of government. But in terms of mass, only a small part of politics is partisan (1949: 153).  In the 1960sthe role of administrators in policy-making process emphasized because of governments was increasingly troubled by complex social, economic, and security problems such as civil rights and poverty. This tendency was string then din the 1970s, when the Vietnam War, Watergate, and the energy crisis all had an impact on the balance between politics and administration. Because of the political nature of administration was highlighted, and the dichotomy denounced as false, many believed that administrators should actively apply their personal values and judgments to policy-making (Yang & Holzer, 2005: 116).One of reasons for rejecting separation of politics-administration was due ethical considerations that were evident in the New Public Administration (NPA). Frederickson (1976), with aware of the need of public organizations to administrative values such as efficiency and economy, emphasized that values such as equity, ethics, responsiveness, participation, and citizenship should be considered. He argued that this democratic values should be executed by administrators as responsible individuals. Administrators for the first time were asked to utilize their personal value judgments in public decision-making. Therefore, politics and administration could not to be separate of each other. 4. Return to the dichotomy: separation of policy and administration Some of authors believe that in the 1980s observe a return to the dichotomy with emphasize on privatization, decentralization and productivity (Uveges & Keller, 1997).This return continued in the 1990s under the Reinventing Government and the New Public Management (NPM) Movements. The Reinventing Government by emphasize on need to change administrator’s role from rowing to steering reincarnated the dichotomy in five ways: distinguishing between policy and management, extending it from the inner workings of government to the body politic, freeing administration from political controls in the form of red tape, redefining accountability, and specifying congressional action as politics and presidential action as management (Carroll, 1995).  Separation policymaking of policy-implementation also supported by the New Public Management. Hughes, one of the NPM proponents, notes: Public organizations do things; governments now want to know what they do; how well they do it; who is in charge and taking responsibility for results. The primary way of achieving this is to let the manager manage. Meaning that senior manager would themselves 136 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate be responsible for the achievement of results rather than being an administrator†¦. Disaggregate anion means splitting large department into different parts by setting up agencies to deliver services for a small policy department†¦. In some ways disaggregation could be seen as a reversion to the ideas of Woodrow Wilson with an organizational split between policy and administration in the division of policy departments and agencies (Hughes, 2003: 62-5). According to Christensen and Laegreid (2001: 96-101)The economic way of thinking in NPM points to an almost generally accepted axiom that it is more efficient to separate political and administrative functions than them integrated, as traditionally has been the case in most countries. The argument is that a division between these functions makes it clearer that they are different functions with different actors that is the politicians should set the goals and the civil servants implement the policies. They believed that One argument in favour of a sharper division between politics and administration is that an integrated solution makes politicians vulnerable to influence and pressure from civil servants, that civil servants threaten to invade the political sphere and that a stricer separation of functions makes it easier to control the civil service. The  Slogan let the managers manage, meaning discretion for managers and boards and not too much daily interference from the political leaders. The implication of this slogan is that chief executives are better at managing and therefore should be given the discretion and opportunity to do so, thereby reducing the burden on the political leadership and, through a sharp division between politics and administration, increase political control. Christensen and Laegreid argued that through devolution and contracting, NPM has sought to separate policy-making more clearly from policy administration and implementation. Policy –makers make policy and then delegate its implementation to managers and hold them accountable by contract. 5. Reconceptualization of dichotomy: two dichotomies In recent two decades, some of authors have critic to the classical conceptualization of the politics-administration dichotomy and attempt to reconceptualize it. Montjoy and Watson (1995: 232-3) Argue that some of Wilson’s statements certainly do advocate a separation of politics and administration, but what would mean in practice depends upon the definitions of the key terms. They point out that Wilson actually dealt with two different types of politics, one focused on partisanship and patronage, the other on policy making. Wilson Clearly wished to separate patronage politics from administration and Whether he advocated a dichotomy of policy making and administration is another issue. Regardless of what he wrote in The Study of Administration, the implications of his later work are unavoidable: administrators were politicians; they must have the freedom to make ethical decisions. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 137 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Montjoy and Watson believe that much of the confusion about politics and administration comes from Goodnow. They ask that was Goodnow’s dichotomy between politics and administration or between policy making and  administration, or were politics and policy making interchangeable for him? They offer an interpretation of Goodnow’s work based on the assumption of two dichotomies: a conceptual dichotomy between policy and administration and an institutional dichotomy between politics and administration. Montjoy and Watson assert that Goodnow used both â€Å"politics† and â€Å"policy† to refer to the expression of the popular will and â€Å"administration† to refer to the execution of that will. They ask Does politics mean patronage or does it mean policy making, or are the three concepts indistinguishable? They argue that the answer may lie in the definition of politics that Goodnow offers in the beginning of Politics and Administration: The act or vocation of guiding or influencing the policy of a government through the organization of a party among its citizens-including, therefore, not only the ethics of government, but more especially, and often to the exclusion of ethical principles, the art of influencing public opinion, attracting and marshalling voters, and obtaining and distributing public patronage, so far as the possession of offices may depend upon the political opinions or political services of individuals (Goodnow, 1900: 19). Montjoy and Watson content that this statement yields two important points. First, politics is definition ally limited to that part of the policy-making process, the act or vocation of guiding or influencing the policy of a government, which is accomplished through a particular method, the organization of a party among its citizens. Second, the application of that method explicitly includes patronage. They conceive of Goodnow’s expression of the public will as the entire policy-making process, including elections. Politics is that part of the process related to political parties. Therefore, they state, we are left with two dichotomies. The first is conceptual, dividing the functions of government into the expression of a will and the execution of that will. The second is operational, the doctrine that the filling of administrative offices (those primarily concerned with execution of the will) should not be used by candidates to attract support in the contest for electoral offices. Another argument about reconceptualization of the politics-administration dichotomy has been done by Overeem. Overeem (2005: 318-22) draw adisti nction between two types of politics: â€Å"partisan politics† and â€Å"policy politics† and state that in these two different types of politics, the stakes are different. In â€Å"partisan politics† the stakes are the powers to make decisions (votes and offices), whereas in â€Å"policy politics† the stakes are the contents of those decisions. Public administrators can have an involvement in the latter, but not in the former. In brief, public administrators cannot (and should not) be excluded from the kind of politics that is inherent to policy-making, but they can (and should) be excluded from politics that has a more partisan character. Overeem explain that in its mid-twentieth century reconceptualization, the politics-administration dichotomy was not so much 138 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate thickened in its intensity as it was broadened in its scope. The Dichotomy’s critics suggested that its intention had been to keep administration not merely out of (partisan) politics, but out of the making of policy as well. Often, the dichotomy’s critics took what had been conceptualized as a contrast between politics and administration for the parallel, alternative, and occasionally synonymous dichotomy between policy and administration. Indeed, the two dichotomies were more and more taken as synonyms. Overeem conclude that public administration contrasts with two dichotomy: 1) politics-administration dichotomy and 2) policyadministration dichotomy. He assert that later should be rejected but former should be accepted. 6. New trends: complementarity of politics and administration We will finish our argument with focus on a new model about politics and administration relationship that named the Complementarity Model. Svara (2001: 179-80) explain that the complementarity Model of politics and administration is based on the premise that elected officials and administrators join together in the common pursuit of sound governance. Complementarity entails separate parts, but parts that come together in a mutually supportive way. Complementarity stresses interdependence along with distinct roles;  compliance along with independence; respect for political control along with a commitment to shape and implement policy in ways that promote the public interest; deference to elected incumbents along with adherence to the law and support for fair electoral competition; and appreciation of politics along with support for professional standards. Svara believe that Complementarity recognizes the interdependence and reciprocal influence between elected officials and administrators. Elected officials and administrators maintain distinct roles based on their unique perspectives and values and the differences in their formal positions, but the functions they perform necessarily overlap. The figure of bellow show different parts of Complementarity Model. The first part is the political dominance that results from high political control and low administrative independence is the condition that has been attacked by reformers from the Progressive Era to the present because of their concern for loss of administrative competence and the potential for political corruption. The second part is Bureaucratic autonomy that is feared by critics of the administrative state, who argue that administrators are self-controlling and advance agency interests rather than the public interest. In both situations, Svara explain, either the level of control or independence is extreme, and the key reciprocating value is not present: Politicians do not respect administrators, or administrators are not committed to accountability. The third part is the combination of low control and low independence, producing a â€Å"live and let live† attitude among officials. Svara believe that the dichotomy model, which is based on totally separate spheres, would logically fit in this category. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 139 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Elected Officials: degree of control Low High Stalemate or laissez-fair Political Dominance Low Complementarity Administrators: level of independence High Political respect administrative Competence and commitment Administrators are Committed to accountability and responsiveness Bureaucratic autonomy Figure1. Understanding the interaction between Politicians and Administrator (Svara, 2001, 180) The final part that is the largest space in figure is the zone of complementarity. Svara argue that most interactions among officials reflect  complementarity, and evidence from local governments in 14 countries supports this generalization. Although in earlier times there was greater emphasis on subordination of administrators linked to greater reliance on hierarchy as an organizational principle, interdependence and reciprocal influence are common and longstanding. A condition that presumably was common earlier in the century, high accountability and moderate independence, would fit in the upper-left corner of the complementarity quadrant, whereas recent experience with moderate control and extensive administrative initiative would be in the lower-right corner. Svara assert that Complementarity Model entails ongoing interaction, reciprocal influence, and mutual deference between elected officials and administrators. Administrators help to shape policy, and they give it specific content and meaning in the process of implementation. Elected officials oversee implementation, probe specific complaints about poor performance, and attempt to correct problems with performance through fine-tuning. Conclusions ` The purpose of this article was to review literature of the politicsadministration dichotomy. In order to, the author’s view about issue on different time periods was argued. The issue of politics and administration is one of the most important issues in public administration as Denhardt introduce dates one of the five main issues in public administration (Denhardt & Baker, 2007: 121). Therefore, that is not to be false if we say that the politics-administration dichotomy is the important part of the public administration identity. Thus, awareness of its history can be effective in properly understand the field of public administration and rightly recognition its problems. There are a number of reasons why the dichotomy idea has persisted. It is convenient to explain the division of roles in terms of total separation because it is 140 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate easier to explain than a model based on sharing roles, particularly since the separation model does not limit the actual policy contributions of administrators in practice. At the same time, the dichotomy idea shields administrators from scrutiny and serves the interests of elected officials who can pass responsibility for unpopular decisions to administrators (Peters, 1995: 177-8). In founders view of public administration, politics and administration should be separated. But, it must be notice that their intention was to remove political interferes of public administration practices. It can be say that founders never clearly rejected the role of public administrators in policy making. They simultaneously emphasized on separation and insulation of administrators from political interference, on one hand, and interaction and incorporation of administrative contributions in the design and the implementation of public policy, on the other hand. Wilson and Goodnow as founding fathers of the field never advocated the dichotomy attributed to them (Golembiewski, 1977; Rabin and Bowman, 1984: 4; Rohr, 1986: 31; Van Riper, 1984: 209-10), It was after them and under the scientific management and the principles of administration movements that separation policy-making of policyimplementation favored and accepted. Under this movements the strict version of separation was formed. After the classic public administration and under the new public administration approach and because of need to values such as equity, ethics, responsiveness, participation, and citizenship the role of administrators in policymaking was emphasized. In this time, Because of the political nature of administration was highlighted, and the dichotomy denounced as false, many believed that administrators should actively apply their personal values and judgments to policy-making. In 80 and 90 decades under the Reinventing Government and the New Public Management Movements observe a return to the dichotomy. Reinventing Government by introduce rowing and steering metaphor emphasized on Separation of policy-making and policy-implementation by freeing  administration from political controls and distinguishing between policy and management. NPM, also, through devolution and contracting has sought to separate policy-making more clearly from policy administration and implementation. Policy-makers make policy and then delegate its implementation to managers and hold them accountable by contract. Nowadays, it is widely regarded both unfeasible and undesirable to keep politics and administration apart and their relationship is presently depicted as complementary rather than dichotomous (Frederickson & Smith, 2003: 15-40; Riggs, 1987; Svara, 1998, 1999, and 2001; Svara & Brunet, 2003). Svarapresent the idea of complementarity as a conceptual framework that includes differentiation along with interaction as an alternative to the dichotomy. The Complementarity model is based on conditions for maintaining the distinction between politics and administration, while at the same time describing how the two are intermixed and prescribing values for preserving this complex relationship. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 141 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. APPLEBY, P., 1949, Policy and Administration, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. CAIDEN, G. 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